Économie de Course, Chaussures à Plaque Carbone & Raideur Musculo-Tendineuse

Here we report on the effect of combining endurance training with heavy or explosive strength training on endurance performance in endurance-trained runners and cyclists. Running economy is improved by performing combined endurance training with either heavy or explosive strength training. However, heavy strength training is recommended for improving cycling economy. Equivocal findings exist regarding the effects on power output or velocity at the lactate threshold. Concurrent endurance and heavy strength training can increase running speed and power output at VO2max (Vmax and Wmax, respectively) or time to exhau…

We evaluated the effects of carbohydrate (CHO) ingestion at rates of 60 (maltodextrin:fructose ratio 1:0), 90 (2:1), and 120 (1:1) g·h-1 on whole body substrate metabolism, exogenous CHO oxidation (via U-13C enriched glucose-fructose drinks) and gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms in elite male marathon runners [n = 8; marathon personal best (PB), 02:22:54 ± 00:05:37]. After 24 h of a high-CHO (8 g·kg-1) diet and pre-exercise meal (2 g·kg-1), participants completed 120-min running trials comprising 15 min at 95% lactate threshold (LT), 90 min at 94% lactate turnpoint, and a final 15 min at 95% LT. Mean whole-body CHO …

This paper examines current concepts concerning "limiting" factors in human endurance performance by modeling marathon running times on the basis of various combinations of previously reported values of maximal O2 uptake (VO2max), lactate threshold, and running economy in elite distance runners. The current concept is that VO2max sets the upper limit for aerobic metabolism while the blood lactate threshold is related to the fraction of VO2max that can be sustained in competitive events greater than approximately 3,000 m. Running economy then appears to interact with VO2max and blood lactate threshold to determine…

OBJECTIVE: Hallux valgus, the lateral deviation of the great toe, can result in poor balance, impaired mobility and is an independent risk factor for falls. This research aims to compare the prevalence of hallux valgus in subpopulations of medieval Cambridge, England, and to examine the relationship between hallux valgus and fractures to examine the impact of impaired mobility and poor balance caused by this condition. MATERIALS: 177 adult individuals from four cemeteries located in Cambridge, England. METHODS: Human remains were macroscopically and radiographically assessed. RESULTS: Hallux valgus was identified…

The development of the human foot is crucial for motor learning in children and adolescents as it ensures the basic requirements for bipedal locomotion and stable standing. Although there is an ongoing debate of the advantages and disadvantages of early and permanent footwear use, the influence of regular barefootness on foot characteristics in different stages of child development has not been extensively evaluated. A multicenter epidemiological study was conducted to compare the foot morphology between habitually barefoot children and adolescents (N = 810) to age-, sex- and ethnicity-matched counterparts that a…

BACKGROUND: Several strategies have been used to improve running economy (RE). Defined as the oxygen uptake required at a given submaximal running velocity, it has been considered a key aerobic parameter related to endurance running performance. In this context, concurrent strength and endurance training has been considered an effective method, although conclusions on the optimal concurrent training cannot yet be drawn. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of concurrent training on RE in endurance running athletes and identify the effects of subject characteristics and concurrent training variables on the magnitude …

Running economy (RE) represents a complex interplay of physiological and biomechanical factors that is typically defined as the energy demand for a given velocity of submaximal running and expressed as the submaximal oxygen uptake (VO2) at a given running velocity. This review considered a wide range of acute and chronic interventions that have been investigated with respect to improving economy by augmenting one or more components of the metabolic, cardiorespiratory, biomechanical or neuromuscular systems. Improvements in RE have traditionally been achieved through endurance training. Endurance training in runne…

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of heavy resistance, explosive resistance, and muscle endurance training on neuromuscular, endurance, and high-intensity running performance in recreational endurance runners. Twenty-seven male runners were divided into one of three groups: heavy resistance, explosive resistance or muscle endurance training. After 6 weeks of preparatory training, the groups underwent an 8-week resistance training programme as a supplement to endurance training. Before and after the 8-week training period, maximal strength (one-repetition maximum), electromyographic activity of t…

Wearing high heels (HH) places the calf muscle-tendon unit (MTU) in a shortened position. As muscles and tendons are highly malleable tissues, chronic use of HH might induce structural and functional changes in the calf MTU. To test this hypothesis, 11 women regularly wearing HH and a control group of 9 women were recruited. Gastrocnemius medialis (GM) fascicle length, pennation angle and physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), the Achilles' tendon (AT) length, cross-sectional area (CSA) and mechanical properties, and the plantarflexion torque-angle and torque-velocity relationships were assessed in both group…

The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of 2 strength training methods on the energy cost of running (Cr). Thirty-five moderately to well-trained male endurance runners were randomly assigned to either a control group (C) or 2 intervention groups. All groups performed the same endurance-training program during an 8-week period. Intervention groups added a weekly strength training session designed to improve neuromuscular qualities. Sessions were matched for volume and intensity using either plyometric training (PT) or purely concentric contractions with added weight (dynamic weight training [DWT]). We…

Fifteen highly trained distance runners VO(2)max 71.1 +/- 6.0 ml.min(-1).kg(-1), mean +/- SD) were randomly assigned to a plyometric training (PLY; n = 7) or control (CON; n = 8) group. In addition to their normal training, the PLY group undertook 3 x 30 minutes PLY sessions per week for 9 weeks. Running economy (RE) was assessed during 3 x 4 minute treadmill runs (14, 16, and 18 km.h(-1)), followed by an incremental test to measure VO(2)max. Muscle power characteristics were assessed on a portable, unidirectional ground reaction force plate. Compared with CON, PLY improved RE at 18 km.h(-1) (4.1%, p = 0.02), but…

PURPOSE: It has been suggested that endurance training influences the running economy (CR) and the oxygen uptake (.VO(2)) kinetics in heavy exercise by accelerating the primary phase and attenuating the .VO(2) slow component. However, the effects of heavy weight training (HWT) in combination with endurance training remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a concurrent HWT+endurance training on CR and the .VO(2) kinetics in endurance athletes. METHODS: Fifteen triathletes were assigned to endurance+strength (ES) or endurance-only (E) training for 14 wk. The training program was sim…

In the exercising human, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) is limited by the ability of the cardiorespiratory system to deliver oxygen to the exercising muscles. This is shown by three major lines of evidence: 1) when oxygen delivery is altered (by blood doping, hypoxia, or beta-blockade), VO2max changes accordingly; 2) the increase in VO2max with training results primarily from an increase in maximal cardiac output (not an increase in the a-v O2 difference); and 3) when a small muscle mass is overperfused during exercise, it has an extremely high capacity for consuming oxygen. Thus, O2 delivery, not skeletal muscle…

We analysed the static footprints of 1846 skeletally mature individuals to establish the influence of the age at which shoe-wearing began on the prevalence of flat foot. The incidence was 3.24% among those who started to wear shoes before the age of six years, 3.27% in those who began between the ages of 6 and 15 and 1.75% in those who first wore shoes at the age of 16 (p < 0.001). Flat foot was highest in those who, as children, wore footwear for over eight hours each day. Obese individuals and those with ligament laxity had a higher prevalence of flat foot (p < 0.01 and p < 0.0001, respectively). Even after adj…

Gluteal activation and pelvic stability often are decreased in chronic low-back pain sufferers, but the importance of motor control and programming in treatment has not been fully evaluated. This study investigated whether gluteal muscles could be activated more effectively by stimulating the proprioceptive mechanism during walking. Labile support, through wearing "balance shoes," offered facilitation of cerebellovestibular circuits. Electromyographic recordings of gluteus maximus and medius in 15 healthy subjects were made during barefoot and balance shoes walking before and after 1 week of facilitation. Signifi…

The human foot is uniquely adapted to bipedal locomotion and has a deformable arch of variable stiffness. Intrinsic foot muscles regulate arch deformation, making them important for foot function. In this study we explore the hypothesis that normal daily activity in minimal footwear, which provides little or no support, increases foot muscle strength. Western adults wore minimal footwear for a six-month period (the "intervention" group). Foot strength, i.e., maximum isometric plantarflexion strength at the metatarsophalangeal joints, and foot biometrics were measured before and after the intervention. An addition…

INTRODUCTION: Weakness of foot muscles may contribute to a variety of loading-related injuries. Supportive footwear may contribute to intrinsic foot muscle weakness by reducing the muscles' role in locomotion (e.g., absorbing forces and controlling motion). Increased stimulus to the foot muscles can be provided through a variety of mechanisms, including minimalist footwear and directed exercise. PURPOSE: To determine the effect of walking in minimalist footwear or performing foot strengthening exercises on foot muscle size and strength. METHODS: Fifty-seven runners were randomly assigned to one of three groups-mi…

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare shock attenuation, spatio-temporal and physiological parameters during water immersed (depth: anterior superior iliac spine) aquatic treadmill (ATM) running and land based treadmill (LTM) running matched for speed. METHODS: Six participants completed 15 min running under 2 conditions (LTM and ATM) in a randomised and balanced order, matched for speed. Synchronised tri-axial accelerometers placed at the distal tibia, lumbar region, and forehead were used to identify running dynamics and measure acceleration on impact and its attenuation. Expired respiratory gases a…

The barbell back squat is commonly used by athletes participating in resistance training. The barbell squat is typically performed using standard athletic shoes, or specially designed weightlifting footwear, although there are now a large number of athletes who prefer to squat barefoot or in barefoot-inspired footwear. This study aimed to determine how these footwear influence 3-D kinematics and muscle activation potentials during the barbell back squat. Fourteen experienced male participants completed squats at 70% 1 rep max in each footwear condition. 3-D kinematics from the torso, hip, knee and ankle were meas…

BACKGROUND: The peaking period for endurance competition is characterized for a relative increase of the intensity of training, after a longer period of training relatively dominated by lower intensity and higher volume. OBJECTIVES: The present study was designed to compare physiological and 10 km performance effects of high intensity training (HIT) versus race pace interval training (RP) during peaking for competition in well-trained runners. PATIENTS AND METHODS: 13 athletes took part in the study, they were divided into two groups: HIT and RP. HIT performed short intervals at ~105% of the maximal aerobic veloc…

BACKGROUND: Endurance performance is predicted by maximal oxygen uptake, its fractional utilisation at lactate threshold (FULT) and exercise economy. These variables are used to estimate speed or power at lactate threshold (LT) and lactate turnpoint (LTP), which serve as performance proxies. OBJECTIVE: This study examined the relationships between these variables in a large cohort of runners and cyclists and quantified their relative contributions to performance prediction. METHODS: 495 runners (105 females) and 393 cyclists (42 females) completed incremental exercise tests to determine maximal oxygen uptake (run…

The aim of this study was to investigate (1) whether factors related to endurance performance are associated with physiological resilience in recreational-to-competitive runners, and (2) differences between recreational and competitive runners in physiological resilience. During three test days, 33 runners (15 competitive and 18 recreational) were tested for their peak fat oxidation, maximal blood lactate concentration (Lamax) after maximal anaerobic running test (MART), maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) in isometric leg press, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), maximal speed of incremental test (sPeak), speeds at…

Xiao, Y, Li, J, Deng, Z, and Gao, W. Effects of high-intensity interval training versus sprint interval training on factors related to endurance performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 40(3): 344-355, 2026-This meta-analysis aimed to compare the long-term effects (≥2 weeks) of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and sprint interval training (SIT) on endurance performance-related outcomes, including maximal oxygen uptake (V̇o2max), endurance performance, maximal aerobic power/velocity (MAP/MAV), lactate threshold, and running economy. A systematic literature search was conducted…

Ramos-Campo, DJ, Andreu Caravaca, L, Clemente-Suárez, VJ, and Rubio-Arias, JÁ. The effect of strength training on endurance performance determinants in middle- and long-distance endurance athletes: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 39(4): 492-506, 2025-Strength training is used to enhance endurance performance in middle- and long-distance endurance athletes. However, likely due to heterogeneity and the variety of training methodologies used, not all studies have found improvements in endurance performance with the incorporation of strength training. We aimed to review…

Purpose: To determine whether kinetic chain pattern during knee extensor strength training influences quadriceps femoris center of mass and moment of inertia about the hip in a predictable manner as such changes can affect running economy. Methods: Twelve participants completed 8 weeks of both unilateral open (OKC) and closed (CKC) kinetic chain resistance training on opposing legs. Changes in quadriceps femoris muscle volume (VOLQF), center of mass location (CoMQF), and moment of inertia (I QF) about the hip were determined from magnetic resonance images scans. Regional hemodynamics of the vastus lateralis taken…

Doma, K, Matoso, B, Protzen, G, Singh, U, and Boullosa, D. The repeated bout effect of multiarticular exercises on muscle damage markers and physical performances: a systematic review and meta-analyses. J Strength Cond Res 37(12): 2504-2515, 2023-This systematic review and meta-analysis compared muscle damage markers and physical performance measures between 2 bouts of multiarticular exercises and determined whether intensity and volume of muscle-damaging exercises affected the outcomes. The eligibility criteria consisted of (a) healthy male and female adults; (b) multiarticular exercises to cause muscle damage a…

UNLABELLED: Despite an intuitive relationship between technique and both running economy (RE) and performance, and the diverse techniques used by runners to achieve forward locomotion, the objective importance of overall technique and the key components therein remain to be elucidated. PURPOSE: This study aimed to determine the relationship between individual and combined kinematic measures of technique with both RE and performance. METHODS: Ninety-seven endurance runners (47 females) of diverse competitive standards performed a discontinuous protocol of incremental treadmill running (4-min stages, 1-km·h increme…

BACKGROUND: Minimalist shoes have gained popularity recently because it is speculated to strengthen the foot muscles and foot arches, which may help to resist injuries. However, previous studies provided limited evidence supporting the link between changes in muscle size and footwear transition. Therefore, this study sought to examine the effects of minimalist shoes on the intrinsic and extrinsic foot muscle volume in habitual shod runners. The relationship between participants' compliance with the minimalist shoes and changes in muscle õvolume was also evaluated. METHODS: Twenty habitual shod runners underwent a…

SYNOPSIS: Bone stress injury (BSI) represents the inability of bone to withstand repetitive loading, which results in structural fatigue and localized bone pain and tenderness. A BSI occurs along a pathology continuum that begins with a stress reaction, which can progress to a stress fracture and, ultimately, a complete bone fracture. Bone stress injuries are a source of concern in long-distance runners, not only because of their frequency and the morbidity they cause but also because of their tendency to recur. While most BSIs readily heal following a period of modified loading and a progressive return to runnin…

The purpose of this study was to validate a higher degree of foot segment angle by wearing the weightlifting (WL) shoes and to determine the kinematic differences between WL shoes and running shoes during the barbell back squat. College-aged individuals volunteered to participate in this study (N = 25). After warm-up, subjects performed 60% of 1RM barbell back squat. Reflective markers were placed on lower extremity joints and end of the bar to create segments to analyze kinematics of the barbell back squat from a 2-dimensional view. Three separate repeated measure analyses of variance were used at p = 0.05. Resu…

Clinicians frequently assess movement performance during a bilateral squat to observe the biomechanical effects of foot orthotic prescription. However, the effects of rearfoot position on bilateral squat kinematics have not been established objectively to date. This study aims to investigate these effects in a population of healthy adults with a pronated foot type. Ten healthy participants with a pronated foot type bilaterally (defined as a navicular drop >9mm) performed three squats in each of three conditions: barefoot, standing on 10mm shoe pitch platforms and standing on the platforms with foam wedges support…

BACKGROUND: The effect of footwear on the gait of children is poorly understood. This systematic review synthesises the evidence of the biomechanical effects of shoes on children during walking and running. METHODS: Study inclusion criteria were: barefoot and shod conditions; healthy children aged ≤ 16 years; sample size of n > 1. Novelty footwear was excluded. Studies were located by online database-searching, hand-searching and contact with experts. Two authors selected studies and assessed study methodology using the Quality Index. Meta-analysis of continuous variables for homogeneous studies was undertaken us…

The present study investigated the relationship between running economy (RE) at 15 km/h(-1) , 3.000-m race time, maximal strength, and a number of physiological, anthropometrical, and mechanical variables. The variables measured included RE, maximal oxygen consumption, heart rate, step length and frequency, contact time, and the peak horizontal and vertical forces of each step. Maximal strength was measured as the 1 repetition maximum (1RM) half-squat using a leg press machine. Eleven male elite endurance athletes with a V(O2)max of 75.8 ± 6.2 mL/kg(-1)/min(-1) participated in this study. After the anthropometric…

Flexibility has been controversially suggested as one of the biomechanical factors contributing to the variability observed in running economy among distance runners. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the magnitude of the relationship between sit-and-reach flexibility and running economy in men and women. Eight collegiate distance runners (4 men and 4 women) served as subjects for this correlational study (age = 19.9 +/- 1.25 years; VO2max = 63.2 +/- 3.4 mlxkgxmin). Each subject's flexibility was measured using the standard sit-and-reach test, and running economy was recorded during an incrementa…

The purpose of this paper is to review the physiological determinants of endurance exercise performance by using the data of the World Record holder for the women's marathon (PR), to illustrate the link between an athlete's physiology and success in distance running. The maximal oxygen (O2) uptake, O2 cost of running at sub-maximal speeds (running economy), and blood lactate response to exercise can all be determined using standard physiology laboratory exercise tests and the results used to track changes in ‘fitness' and to make recommendations for future training. PR's data demonstrate a 15% improvement in runn…

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of different pedalling cadences on the performance of a subsequent 10km treadmill run. Eight male triathletes (age 38.9 ± 15.4 years, body mass 72.2 ± 5.2 kg, and stature 176 ± 6 cm; mean ± SD) completed a maximal cycling test, one isolated run (10km), and then three randomly ordered cycle-run sessions (65 minutes cycling + 10km run). During the cycling bout of the cycle-run sessions, subjects cycled at an intensity corresponding to 70% Pmax while maintaining one of three cadences, corresponding to preferred cadence (PC), PC+15% (fast cadence) and PC-15% (slow cade…

PURPOSE: To establish the typical error (TE) associated with equipment, testing, and biological variation of a running economy (RE) test in 11 elite male distance runners (VO2max 70.3 +/- 7.3 mL x min(-1) x kg(-1)), and measure the between-athlete variation of 70 highly trained runners (VO2max 69.7 +/- 6.0 mL x min(-1) x kg(-1)) to determine the magnitude of the smallest worthwhile change (SWC) required for RE. METHODS: Runners performed three 4-min bouts of submaximal treadmill running at speeds of 14, 16, and 18 km x h(-1) (0% grade), on two separate occasions within a 7-d period to determine reliability and on…

PURPOSE: To determine if cycling cadence affects subsequent running speed through changes in stride frequency. METHODS: Thirteen male triathletes completed three sessions of testing on separate days. During the first session (control condition), the participants completed a 30-min cycling bout of high intensity at their preferred cadence, immediately followed by a 3200-m run at race effort. During the second and third sessions (fast condition and slow condition), the participants repeated the protocol but with a cycling cadence 20% faster or 20% slower than the control condition. RESULTS: After cycling at a fast …

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between running economy (RE) and lower body flexibility. Thirty-four international-standard male distance runners (mean +/- s, age 27 +/- 5 years; body mass 64.9 +/- 4.2 kg; VO(2)max 72.8 +/- 3.7 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) gave written consent to participate in this study. The subjects performed an incremental treadmill test for the assessment of RE, lactate threshold and VO(2)max, and the sit-and-reach test was used to assess their general lower body and trunk flexibility. Running speeds below the lactate threshold were used to explore the relationship be…

Current knowledge of the physiological, biomechanical, and sensory effects of the cycle to run transition in the Olympic triathlon (1.5 km, 10 km, 40 km) is reviewed and implications for the training of junior and elite triathletes are discussed. Triathlon running elicits hyperventilation, increased heart rate, decreased pulmonary compliance, and exercise induced hypoxaemia. This may be due to exercise intensity, ventilatory muscle fatigue, dehydration, muscle fibre damage, a shift in metabolism towards fat oxidation, and depleted glycogen stores after a 40 km cycle. The energy cost (CR) of running during the cyc…

It is perceived that, during the triathlon or duathlon, cycling with a steep (> 76 degrees) rather than a shallow (< 76 degrees ) frame geometry might attenuate the fatigue associated with progression from the cycle to run disciplines and improve subsequent 10-km running performance. This is based on anecdotal testimony from athletes purporting to have experienced improved performance; no empirical evidence exists. To evaluate this view, eight male triathletes completed a counterbalanced, 40-km cycle ride at two frame geometries (73 degrees and 81 degrees) at approximately 70% VO2peak. Immediately after completio…

We prospectively studied the effect of heavy-load eccentric calf muscle training in 15 recreational athletes (12 men and 3 women; mean age, 44.3 +/- 7.0 years) who had the diagnosis of chronic Achilles tendinosis (degenerative changes) with a long duration of symptoms despite conventional nonsurgical treatment. Calf muscle strength and the amount of pain during activity (recorded on a visual analog scale) were measured before onset of training and after 12 weeks of eccentric training. At week 0, all patients had Achilles tendon pain not allowing running activity, and there was significantly lower eccentric and co…

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between nine measures of limb and trunk flexibility and running economy. Within a week prior to running economy assessment, and after 10 min of jogging at 3.13 m.s-1, 19 well-trained male sub-elite distance runners underwent two complete sets of lower limb and trunk flexibility assessments. Runners then completed two 10-min running economy assessment sessions on consecutive days at 4.13 m.s-1 following two 30-min sessions of treadmill accommodation at 4.13 m.s-1. Intraclass correlation coefficients indicated that the repeated flexibility measurements were h…

Running is the most visible expression of the continued interest in regular physical activities. Unfortunately injuries are common, primarily due to overuse, and a number of aetiological factors have been recognised. Of these, training errors can be responsible for up to 60% of injuries. The training surface, a lack of flexibility and strength, the stage of growth and development, poor footwear and abnormal biomechanical features have all been implicated in the development of running injuries. A thorough understanding of the biomechanics of running is a necessary prerequisite for individuals who treat or advise r…

Cyclists, coaches, and equipment manufacturers claim that cycling-specific shoes coupled with clipless pedals are ‘more efficient’. However, scientific evidence supporting or refuting these claims is lacking. We measured the metabolic cost of cycling at sub-maximal power outputs and tested the null hypothesis that there would be no differences between three different shoe-pedal combinations. Eleven healthy subjects participated (six males, four females, age 24.9 ± 6.84 yr, mass 69.98 ± 9.37 kg). We compared: (1) Nike Free 3.0 running shoes with flat rubber pedals, (2) Nike Free 3.0 running shoes with classic alum…

Non-circular chainrings have been reported to alter the crank angular velocity profile over a pedal revolution so that more time is spent in the effective power phase. The purpose of this study was to determine whether sprint cycling performance could be improved using a non-circular chainring (Osymetric: ellipticity 1.25 and crank lever mounted nearly perpendicular to the major axis), in comparison with a circular chainring. Twenty sprint cyclists performed an 8 s sprint on a cycle ergometer against a 0.5 N/kg(-1) friction force in four crossing conditions (non-circular or circular chainring with or without clip…

To determine the effect of clipless and toe-clipped pedals on plantar foot pressure while cycling. Seven bikers and 11 healthy volunteers were tested on a Giant ATX Team mountain bike, Tekscan Clinical 5.24 F-scan® system with an inner sole pressure sensor, a Tacx Cycle force One Turbo Trainer and a Cateye Mity 8 computerized speedometer were used. The subjects wore Shimano M037 shoes and used a standard clipless and toe-clipped pedal. The seat height was set at 100% of subject's trochanteric height. Plantar pressures were recorded over 12 consecutive crank cycles at a constant speed for each of the power outputs…

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of different shoe-pedal interfaces and of an active pulling-up action during the upstroke phase on the pedalling technique. Eight elite cyclists (C) and seven non-cyclists (NC) performed three different bouts at 90 rev . min (-1) and 60 % of their maximal aerobic power. They pedalled with single pedals (PED), with clipless pedals (CLIP) and with a pedal force feedback (CLIPFBACK) where subjects were asked to pull up on the pedal during the upstroke. There was no significant difference for pedalling effectiveness, net mechanical efficiency (NE) and muscular acti…

For nearly 40 years, scientists and elite endurance athletes have been investigating the use of altitude in an effort to enhance exercise performance. While the results of many early studies on the use of altitude training for sea level performance enhancement have produced equivocal results, newer studies using the 'live high, train low' altitude training model have demonstrated significant improvements in red cell mass, maximal oxygen uptake, oxygen uptake at ventilatory threshold, and 3000m and 5000m race time. For the marathoner looking to add altitude training to their peak performance plans, residence at an…

PURPOSE: Between inefficient training and overtraining, an appropriate training stimulus (in terms of intensity and duration) has to be determined in accordance with individual capacities. Interval training at the minimal velocity associated with VO2max (vVO2max) allows an athlete to run for as long as possible at VO2max. Nevertheless, we don't know the influence of a defined increase in training volume at vVO2max on aerobic performance, noradrenaline, and heart rate. METHODS: Eight subjects performed 4 wk of normal training (NT) with one session per week at vVO2max, i.e., five repetitions run at 50% of the time …

The principal demand on the body during cycling is on the lower extremities as they are responsible for producing a majority of the energy imparted to the bike. As a result the legs, due to high reactive forces between the foot and pedal, experience high loads on the joints. These loads may adversely affect joint tissues and contribute to overuse injuries, e.g. knee pain. The mechanical link between the leg and the bike is the shoe/pedal interface. This transmission site, by design, can either create smooth transfer of energy or abnormally high repetitive loads which are potentially injurious to the body. Inciden…